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All sciences. в„–5,В 2023. International Scientific Journal
Saidjon Baxtiyorjonovich Xayitov

Obbozjon Xokimovich Qo'ldashov

Boxodir Xoshimovich Karimov

Ibratjon Xatamovich Aliyev

Maftuna Rahmatillayevna Xayitova

Shaxlo Norqoziyevna Usmonova

Ahliddin Mirzohidovich Qo'chqorov

Abdullajon Odiljonovich Komilov

Foziljon Oripovich Obidov

Javohir Abdurasulovich Jumayev


The international scientific journal В«All SciencesВ», created at OOO В«Electron LaboratoryВ» and the Scientific School В«ElectronВ», is a scientific publication that publishes the latest scientific results in various fields of science and technology, also representing a collection of publications on the above topics by a board of authors and reviewed by the editorial Board (Academic Council) of the Scientific School В«ElectronВ» and the Ridero platform monthly.





All sciences. в„–5,В 2023

International Scientific Journal



Authors: AliyevВ IbratjonВ Xatamovich, KarimovВ BoxodirВ Xoshimovich, Qo'ldashovВ ObbozjonВ Xokimovich, KomilovВ AbdullajonВ Odiljonovich, JumayevВ JavohirВ Abdurasulovich, Qo'chqorovВ AhliddinВ Mirzohidovich, XayitovВ SaidjonВ Baxtiyorjonovich, XayitovaВ MaftunaВ Rahmatillayevna, ObidovВ FoziljonВ Oripovich, UsmonovaВ ShaxloВ Norqoziyevna



Editor-in-Chief Ibtajon Xatamovich Aliyev

Illustrator Obbozjon Xokimovich Qo'ldashov

Illustrator Sultonali Mukaramovich Abduraxmonov

Cover Designer Ibratjon Xatamovich Aliyev

Cover Designer Ra'noxon Mukaramovna Aliyeva

Acting Scientific Supervisor Sultonali Mukaramovich Abduraxmonov

Economic Manager Farruh Murodjonovich Sharofutdinov

Economic Consultant Botirali Rustamovich Jalolov

Proofreader Gulnoza Muxtorovna Sobirova

Proofreader Abdurasul Abdusoliyevich Ergashev

Proofreader Ekaterina Aleksandrovna Vavilova



© Ibratjon Xatamovich Aliyev, 2023

© Boxodir Xoshimovich Karimov, 2023

© Obbozjon Xokimovich Qo'ldashov, 2023

© Abdullajon Odiljonovich Komilov, 2023

© Javohir Abdurasulovich Jumayev, 2023

© Ahliddin Mirzohidovich Qo'chqorov, 2023

© Saidjon Baxtiyorjonovich Xayitov, 2023

© Maftuna Rahmatillayevna Xayitova, 2023

© Foziljon Oripovich Obidov, 2023

© Shaxlo Norqoziyevna Usmonova, 2023



ISBNВ 978-5-0060-4653-5 (С‚. 5)

ISBNВ 978-5-0059-5900-3

Created with Ridero smart publishing system




PHYSICAL AND MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES





DESIGN AND FEATURES OFВ THE PROCESS OFВ CREATING AВ HELIUM LASER



UDC 621.373.8




Aliyev Ibratjon Xatamovich







3rd year student of the Faculty of Mathematics and Computer Science of Fergana State University







Ferghana State University, Ferghana, Uzbekistan


Annotation. The manufacture ofВ aВ large number ofВ devices ofВ aВ very different nature is reduced toВ the possibility ofВ interaction ofВ modern technology with aВ variety ofВ types ofВ materials, including refractory ones. For this reason, inВ order toВ create aВ three-dimensional printer device capable ofВ acting on tungsten, quartz and some other materials, byВ regulating the strength ofВ the melting element, the design ofВ aВ helium ultraviolet laser was developed.

Keywords: laser, helium, ultraviolet, tungsten, three-dimensional printer, design, device.

Аннотация. Р?зготовление большого количества устройств самого различного характера сводиться к возможности взаимодействия современной техники с самыми различными типами материалов, в том числе и тугоплавкими. По этой причине, с целью создания устройства трёхмерного принтера СЃРїРѕСЃРѕР±РЅРѕРіРѕ воздействовать на вольфрам, кварц и некоторые РґСЂСѓРіРёРµ материалы, путём регулирования силы плавящего элемента и была разработана конструкция гелиевого ультрафиолетового лазера.

Ключевые слова: лазер, гелий, ультрафиолет, вольфрам, трёхмерных принтер, конструкция, устройство.

The laser device is a cylindrical glass flask with a fixed diameter and an internal division similar to the radius. The thickness of such a bulb is chosen specifically to solve the problem of depressurization of the structure. In such a flask, helium is introduced in the outer part, and coils are installed on both sides, one of which is a direct – filament cathode, and the second is an anode. Due to the fact that the cathode begins to heat up, a current density begins to arise between it and the anode, determined by (1) and from which the kinetic energy of the cathode molecules (2) can be calculated from the temperature value, and after that the velocity of the molecules (3), from which, in turn, the charge is calculated from the value of a certain current density (4).























Further, from the calculations given, it is possible toВ determine the voltage, that is, the kinetic energy ofВ the charges reaching the anode, from where their voltage (5) manifests itself, and since the value ofВ the current density inВ the cathode itself (6) is known, depending on the ratio ofВ this current density and the density ofВ the outgoing charge, the percentage ofВ charge output from the cathode can be found (7) or aВ kind ofВ cathodic efficiency.


















After the charges with the set energy, at a given voltage, fly out of the cathode, they begin to affect the helium located between the electrodes, which begins to be excited and move to the next energy level and after descending from it, which takes microseconds, begins to emit photons of ultraviolet light. There is a reflective foil around the outer part of the bulb, which reflects all these multidirectional rays and reduces them to a single point. In addition, mirrors or the same foil are located at the ends of the sides of this tube, which further increases the effect.

Then the reflected ultraviolet rays begin to move towards the central part, but this central part must be made of quartz glass, which unlike conventional conducts ultraviolet. And in the central flask there is also helium with the same excitation energy, which leads to the fact that helium absorbs the photons that hit it and releases twice as much.

On one side of the central part of the structure there is also a reflecting mirror, and on the other – quartz glass, which releases a stream of concentrated ultraviolet photons with high energy. Thus generating a stream with an energy of at least 28—30 watts, which can be concentrated in sufficiently small areas using powerful lenses and acting on the desired object. For comparison, when using a lens with the possibility of increasing by 5.5—6 thousand times and reducing the beam area to 1 micron, the temperature of tungsten reaches 4.5 thousand degrees, which is several times higher than its melting point. Thanks to this, it is possible to create a design of this kind of three-dimensional printer that will affect the material with great accuracy, causing it to melt at a certain point with an accuracy of up to a micrometer and layer by layer causing the formation of the necessary detail of any scale with sufficiently high strength!




Used literature


1. Bagramov, R. Lasers in dentistry, maxillofacial and reconstructive plastic surgery / R. Bagramov, M. Alexandrov, Yu. Sergeev. – M.: Technosphere, 2010. – 608 p.

2. Bertolotti, M. The history of the laser. Scientific publication / M. Bertolotti. – M.: Intellect, 2015. – 336 p.

3. Bogdanov, A.D. Gyroscopes on lasers / A.D. Bogdanov. – M.: Voenizdat, 1975. – 731 p.

4. Vasiliev, G. M. Kinetic and transport processes in molecular gas lasers / G. M. Vasiliev, S. A. Zhdanok. – M.: Belorusskaya Navuka, 2010. – 206 p.

5. Gamaleya, N. F. Lasers in experiment and clinic / N. F. Gamaleya. – L.: Medicine, 2013. – 232 p.

6. Zastrogin, Yu. F. Control of motion parameters using lasers. Methods and means: monogr. / Yu. F. Zastrogin. – L.: Mashinostroenie, 1981. – 176 p.

7. Zuev, V. E. Laser meteorologist / V. E. Zuev. – M.: Hydrometeoizdat, 2001. – 180 p.

8. Laser—induced chemical processes. – M.: Mir, 1984. – 312 p.

9. Laser and light therapy. Volume 1. Vascular disorders. Hyperpigmentation. Scars. Skin diseases. Epilation (+ DVD-ROM). – Moscow: Reed Elsiver, 2010. – 188 p.

10. Laser and light therapy. Volume 2. Skin rejuvenation. Laser grinding. Laser therapy in patients with dark skin. Cellulite treatment (+ DVD-ROM). – M.: Reed Elsiver, 2010. – 152 p.

11. Lasers in aviation. – M.: Voenizdat, 1982. – 160 p.

12. Lasers in endoscopy / N. E. Chernekhovskaya et al. – M.: MEDpress-inform, 2011. – 144 p.

13. Lasers. – M.: Publishing House of Foreign Literature, 1996. – 472 p.

14. Maitland, A. Introduction to laser physics / A. Maitland, M. Dunn. – Moscow: Mir, 1978. – 598 p.

15. Nasretdinov, Alexey Voyeurism and combat lasers / Alexey Nasretdinov. – M.: Boslen, 2007. – 128 p.

16. Ochkin, V. N. Waveguide gas lasers / V. N. Ochkin. – M.: Znanie, 1988. – 282 p.




THE TECHNOLOGY OFВ CREATING AВ DOSIMETER USING ARDUINO



UDC 551.521




Karimov Boxodir Xoshimovich







Candidate of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, Associate Professor of the Department of "Technological Education" of the Faculty of Physics and Technology of Fergana State University







Ferghana State University, Ferghana, Uzbekistan


Annotation. Radiation inВ all its manifestations is an integral part ofВ the entire nuclear industry, along with its other actions on charged particle accelerators, as well as inВ everyday life, when taking into account the general background radiation, or when searching for radioactive fossils, ofВ which there are quite aВ lot. And at the same time, it is important toВ scale this process using more equipment, however, inВ order toВ achieve these goals, it is necessary toВ organize aВ favorable ground inВ the face ofВ more affordable dosimeters, as an example ofВ one ofВ the types ofВ equipment based on Arduino boards.

Keywords: radiation, dosimeter, Arduino, determination, radioactive background, determination and statement ofВ measuring instrument data, measuring instruments.

Аннотация. Радиация во всех её проявлениях является неотъемлемой частью всей ядерной промышленности, наряду с прочими её действиями на ускорителях заряженных частиц, а также в повседневной жизни, РїСЂРё учёте общей фоновой радиации, либо РїСЂРё РїРѕРёСЃРєРµ радиоактивных ископаемых, РєРѕРёС… достаточно РјРЅРѕРіРѕ. Р?В РїСЂРё этом важно масштабирование этого процесса с использованием большего количества оборудований, однако, для достижения поставленных целей, необходимо организовывать благоприятную почву в лице более доступных дозиметров, как примера РѕРґРЅРѕРіРѕ из типов оборудования на основе плат Arduino.

Ключевые слова: радиация, дозиметр, Arduino, определение, радиоактивный фон, определение и констатация данных измерительных приборов, измерительные приборы.

As you know, there are several types of radiation: alpha, beta and gamma, which are almost always found together in nature. And it is possible to create meter designs for each type of radiation, therefore in this model the type of dosimeter for the determination of beta radiation will be considered. To do this, a small beta Geiger counter with a mica window will be used, from where all types of radioactive radiation pass. After that, a special printed circuit board is created based on the Arduino Pro Mini and a 128 by 32 pixel OLED display, and a TP4056 battery is installed under the module. The MT3608 boost module is located under the board itself, to increase the voltage from the battery to 5 V. After printing the board, it was time to use a special library, of which there were enough types.

In one of the tested libraries, it was possible to observe slowness in operation, in others indistinct indicators on a small display, etc., as a result of such a sample, the resulting type of library GyverOLED and GyverButton, operating at a frequency of 80 kHz, was determined. When the circuit was assembled, experimental launches were made, however, they showed that the step-up module led to a rapid burnout of a large number of parts, including the Arduino board itself, which caused it to be replaced with an auto generator with a stable voltage with a throttle and two windings – a surface one for 3 turns and a step-down one for 5 turns. Also, an MPM transistor of type 13003 or KT815 is used for grounding.






Fig. 1. Diagram ofВ the dosimeter device on Arduino ProВ Mini



As a result, the circuit of the device looked like in Fig. 1., while the resistor data (marked with an asterisk) had to be selected to increase the accuracy of the device, which could be seen when connected to an oscilloscope, using a 100 kOhm resistor is sufficient for low accuracy. And the diode (also marked with an asterisk) is necessary for the input voltage drop for the autotransformer, since depending on the input voltage, the output voltage is obtained, the value of which should be an increase of the order of 350-400 V.

Next, a case was created that fits all the necessary parts on a 3D printer with battery compartments, a boozer or speaker that goes to the front panel, the front panel itself, buttons, the board itself, and so on. Finally, the device was turned on and tested.

The display showed data on the loading of values (on the left about the achievement of the maximum accuracy), the radiation value itself, under it the unit of measurement is mkR / h, then next to the mode – alpha, beta, gamma, alpha + beta, beta + gamma, alpha + gamma or alpha + beta + gamma. There was also a radiation icon nearby, indicating the arrival of a charged particle of one type or another, and next to it was the battery charge level.

2 buttons are organized for control. Pressing the first of them leads to the display of the dose value of the radiation received from the moment the dosimeter is turned on. Pressing again returns to the main screen. A long press of the first button resets the readings and repeats the analysis, which leads to the zeroing of the "readiness indicator" that was on the left on the main panel. Double-clicking changes the unit of measurement to mSv/h, and the dose reading will also be in these units.

The lower button, when pressed once, shows the maximum dose of radiation received. When pressed twice, the search mode starts every second, however, these values have low accuracy, however, this mode signals well about the presence of any radiation sources, even with relatively low radiation. In addition, it is worth saying that with an increased radiation background, the accuracy may drop, but the counting speed increases dramatically for faster signaling for the user.

Testing The device was also tested using uranium glass and professional sensors, the data of which practically coincided during measurements and the difference in values was no more than hundredths of an mP/h. Some other sources were also used, during testing of which, the data again coincided.

As aВ result, aВ device was created that allows determining the level ofВ background radiation with sufficient accuracy for practical use using Arduino.




Used literature


1. Histo-hematic barriers and ionizing radiation: monogr.. – M.: Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 2013. – 216 p.

2. Dielectrics and radiation. In 4 books. Book 1. Radiation electrical conductivity / N. S. Kostyukov et al. – L.: Nauka, 2012. – 256 p.

3. Dielectrics and radiation. In 4 books. Book 3. Mechanical and electrical strength and structure change under irradiation / N. S. Kostyukov et al. – L.: Nauka, 2015. – 256 p.

4. Dielectrics and radiation. In 8 books. Book 7. The influence of transmutants on the properties of ceramic dielectrics: monograph / N. S. Kostyukov et al. – L.: Nauka, 2015. – 280 p.

5. Egorov, A. P. Hematopoiesis and ionizing radiation: monograph / A. P. Egorov, V. V. Bochkarev. – M.: State Publishing House of Medical Literature, 2012. – 256 p.

6. Li, D. E. The effect of radiation on living cells / D. E. Li. – M.: State Publishing House of Literature on Atomic Energy science and Technology of the State Committee of the Council of Ministers of the USSR on the Use of Atomic Energy, 2014. – 288 p.

7. Livanov, M. N. Some problems of the effect of ionizing radiation on the nervous system: monograph / M. N. Livanov. – M.: State Publishing House of Medical Literature, 2013. – 196 p.

8. Nadareishvili, K. Sh. Questions of the influence of ionizing radiation on the cardiovascular system / K. Sh. Nadareishvili. – M.: Metsniereba, 2011. – 300 p.

9. Nikolay, Daineko und Sergey Timofeev Radiation and medicinal plants / Nikolay Daineko und Sergey Timofeev. – M.: LAP Lambert Academic Publishing, 2014. – 156 p.

10. Pobedinsky, M. N. Methods of examination of the function of the genital glands in women working with sources of ionizing radiation / M. N. Pobedinsky. – M.: State Publishing House of Medical Literature, 2014. – 28 p.

11. Smirnova, O. A. Radiation and the mammalian organism. Model approach: monogr. / O. A. Smirnova. – M.: SIC "Regular and chaotic dynamics", Institute of Computer Research, 2010. – 224 p.

12. Teldeshi, Yu. Radiation – threat or hope / Yu. Teldeshi, M. Kenda. – M.: Mir, 2011. – 415 p.

13. Hall, J. Radiation and life / J. Hall. – L.: Medicine, 2014. – 256 p.

14. Shlyakhov, V. Investigation of the balance of long-wave radiation in the troposphere: monograph / V. Shlyakhov. – M.: Hydrometeorological Publishing House, 2014. – 82 p.

15. Shubik, V. M. Life with radiation. Book 1. Peaceful atom: benefit – harm: monogr. / V. M. Shubik. – M.: SINTEG, 2011. – 212 p.




TECHNICAL SCIENCES





ALARM SENSOR FOR GEOTHERMAL ENERGY FACILITIES



UDC 620.97




Qo’ldashov Obbozjon Xokimovich







Doctor of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, Professor of the Scientific Research Institute "Physics of Semiconductors and Microelectronics" at the National University of Uzbekistan







Scientific Research Institute "Physics of Semiconductors and Microelectronics" at the National University of Uzbekistan

Komilov Abdullajon Odiljonovich







Assistant of the Fergana branch of the Tashkent University of Information Technologies







Ferghana Branch of Tashkent University of Information Technologies

Jumaev Javohir Abdurasulovich







2nd year student of the Department of 13.03.02 "Electric power and electrical engineering" of the Tashkent branch of the Moscow Power Engineering Institute







Tashkent Branch ofВ the Moscow Power Engineering Institute


Annotation. Over the past decades, there has been an increased interest in alternative sources of renewable energy in nature: solar, geothermal, wind, etc. It should be noted that this interest is caused not only because of the annual increase in prices for traditional fuels (oil, coal, gas) and forecast data on the depletion of their reserves in the foreseeable future. It is also caused by the need to address issues of environmental protection from pollution and possible man-made disasters. For these reasons, many countries around the world are focused on a rational combination of traditional energy sources with renewable ones. At the same time, among renewable energy sources, the deep heat of the Earth occupies not the last place. It is enough to name countries such as Iceland, the Philippines, New Zealand, Indonesia, the USA, Italy, etc., where there are enormous thermal resources lying in relatively shallow layers of the earth’s crust.

Keywords: sensors, alarm system, geothermal energy, alternative sources ofВ renewable and natural energy.

Аннотация. За последние десятилетия РІВ РјРёСЂРµ РІРѕР·СЂРѕСЃ интерес к альтернативным источникам возобновляемой РІВ РїСЂРёСЂРѕРґРµ энергии: солнечной, геотермальной, ветровой РёВ РґСЂ. Надо отметить, что этот интерес вызван не только РёР·-Р·Р° ежегодного роста цен на традиционные РІРёРґС‹ топлива (нефть, уголь, газ) и прогнозных данных по истощению РІВ РѕР±РѕР·СЂРёРјРѕРј будущем РёС… запасов. РћРЅ вызван также необходимостью решения РІРѕРїСЂРѕСЃРѕРІ защиты окружающей среды от загрязнения и возможных техногенных катастроф. По этим причинам РІРѕВ РјРЅРѕРіРёС… странах РјРёСЂР° ориентируются на рациональное сочетание традиционных источников энергии с возобновляемыми. РџСЂРё этом среди возобновляемых источников энергии глубинное тепло Земли занимает не последнее место. Достаточно назвать такие страны, как Р?сландия, Филиппины, Новая Зеландия, Р?ндонезия, РЎРЁРђ, Р?талия РёВ РґСЂ., РіРґРµ имеются колоссальные тепловые ресурсы, залегающие в сравнительно неглубоких пластах земной РєРѕСЂС‹.

Ключевые слова: датчики, аварийная сигнализация, геотермальная энергетика, альтернативные источники возобновляемой и природной энергии.

Today, geothermal energy is actively developing in Uzbekistan. On the territory of Uzbekistan, forecast geothermal resources at accessible depths (up to 5-6 km) are 4-6 times higher than hydrocarbon resources. The main consumers of geothermal resources in the near and long term in Uzbekistan will undoubtedly be heat supply and, to a much lesser extent, electricity generation.

However, geothermal energy is not without drawbacks, as it is known that dangerous gases are released at geothermal wells, and therefore the control of these gases is relevant for the development and search for new sources of geothermal waters. When using these waters in the equipment of geothermal systems, deposits are observed, mainly of the poorly soluble salt CaCO3, in this regard, the control of the gas composition is relevant for their development and the search for new sources of geothermal waters [6-7].

Depending on the conditions of formation, as well as the chemical and gas composition, geothermal waters are divided into carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, nitrogen, hydrogen sulfide-carbon dioxide, nitrogen-carbon dioxide, methane and nitrogen-methane. Geothermal waters of the Fergana Valley are classified as methane.

The presence on the territory of Uzbekistan of a large potential of resources of hydrothermal deposits with a gas factor requires the development of new technical and technological solutions for their effective use.

Exposure to geothermal gases, mainly methane, can occur at workplaces during emergency releases of geothermal fluid and maintenance work in a confined space, for example, inside pipelines, turbines and condensers. The severity of the risk of methane exposure may vary depending on the location of the facility and the properties of the reservoir being developed.

If there is a possibility that workers will be exposed to methane in dangerous concentrations, installation of methane concentration monitoring systems and alarm systems at geothermal energy facilities should be carried out.

The gas composition of geothermal waters is dominated by methane CH4, CO2, N2 and H2S. The absorption coefficients of gases entering the IR radiation region were calculated on the basis of spectroscopic information from the HITRAN-2008 database, the wavelength at the maximum absorption of infrared radiation by methane was 3.4 microns [10-11].

The principle of operation of the alarm sensor for geothermal energy facilities is as follows: the gas chamber is irradiated with two infrared LEDs emitting two different wavelengths, one of which corresponds to the maximum absorption of methane (F0О»1 = 3.4 microns), and the other weak (F0О»2 = 3.2 microns).

The gas chamber is irradiated with two radiation streams F0О»1 and F0О»2 at the reference and measuring О»2 wavelengths, respectively. The radiation fluxes that have passed through the gas chamber will be equal, respectively:













where: F0О»1 and F0О»2 are radiation fluxes incident on the gas chamber at wavelengths and, respectively.

where: F0О»1 and F0О»2 are radiation fluxes after passing through the gas chamber at wavelengths and, respectively: c1 is the concentration ofВ aВ mixture ofВ gaseous substances; L is the length ofВ the optical path, i.e. the length ofВ the gas chamber; c2 is the concentration ofВ the gaseous substance;

K1 is the scattering coefficient of a mixture of gaseous substances;

K2 is the absorption coefficient of the gaseous substance being determined.

The radiation flux varies inВ time (t) according toВ the exponentialВ law:








where: AВ is aВ constant coefficient corresponding toВ the initial value ofВ the exponential pulse amplitude, N is the number ofВ pulses from the beginning ofВ the exponent toВ the moment ofВ change ofВ the photoelectric signal.

At the moment ofВ equality ofВ the radiation fluxes and we obtainВ that








from which it follows that:








where: te is the exponential time constant.

In the alarm sensor for geothermal energy facilities, LEDs with radiation spectra of 3.2 microns (reference) and LEDs with radiation spectra of 3.4 microns (working) are used.

Figure 1 shows a block diagram of an alarm sensor for geothermal energy facilities, which consist of a power supply unit – 1, a generator – 2, a frequency divider – 3, a single—vibrator – 4, an exponential function modulator – 5, an emitter repeater – 6, electronic keys 7 and 8, light-emitting diodes (9 and 10), gas chamber – 11, photodiode – 12, first differentiating device – 13, threshold device – 14, matching circuit – 15, second differentiating device – 16, counter – 17.

The alarm sensor for geothermal energy facilities works as follows:

The rectangular pulse generator – 2 generates pulses with the required repetition rate. These pulses from the antiphase outputs go to the input of the divider – 3 frequencies and to the control inputs of the keys – 7 and 8. Rectangular pulses from the output of the divider – 3 frequencies go to the input of the single – vibrator – 4. Rectangular pulses with the required duration from the output of the single – vibrator – 4 enter the input of the exponent modulator – 5, the output of which is connected via an emitter repeater – 6 to the input of the electronic key – 8, where a discrete exponential current pulse is formed, which flows through the emitting diode 9, causing a radiation flux according to the same law. The electronic key – 7 switches to the pulses that fill the exponent in an antiphase manner.

Figure 3В shows the transfer function ofВ the alarm sensor for geothermal energy facilities.








A current pulse flowing through a light-emitting diode 10 causes a luminous flux, the amplitude of which is constant. The radiation streams of LEDs that have passed through the gas chamber – 11 are received by the photodiode – 12. This signal is fed to the input of the first differentiating device – 13, from the output of which the differentiated photoelectric signal enters the input of the threshold device – 14.

Next, the signal from the output of the threshold device – 14 is fed to one of the inputs of the matching circuit – 15. A signal is sent to the other input of the coincidence circuit – 15 from the output of the second differentiating device – 16. From the moment of comparison, a number of pulses appear at the output of the coincidence circuit – 15, which arrive at the counting input of the counter – 17. At the beginning of the next exponent, the counter – 17 receives rectangular pulses from the output of the single—vibrator – 4 at the input "Zero setting" and the counter – 17 is prepared for the next cycle.

Comparison ofВ the amplitudes ofВ the reference and measuring radiation fluxes using aВ threshold device ensures the accuracy ofВ measurement ofВ aВ geothermal gas monitoring device based on semiconductor emitters.




Literature


1.В AkhmedovВ G.В Ya.В Protection ofВ geothermal systems from carbonate deposits. M.: Scientific World, 2012.

2. Kiseleva S. V., Kolomiets Y. G., and O. S. Popel’, «Assessment of solar energy resources in Central Asia,» Appl. Sol. Energy (English Transl. Solar Engineering), 2015, doi: 10.3103/S0003701X15030056.




PHOTOVOLTAIC EFFECT INВ a-QUARTZ



UDC 548.1.024.5




Karimov Boxodir Xoshimovich







Candidate of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, Associate Professor of the Department of "Technological Education" of the Faculty of Physics and Technology of Fergana State University







Ferghana State University, Ferghana, Uzbekistan


Annotation. The anomalous photovoltaic effect observed earlier for LibO 3:Fes ferroelectrics is aВ special case ofВ aВ more general FE existing inВ crystals without aВ center ofВ symmetry and described byВ the third ai j k tensors.

Keywords: photovoltaic effect, ferroelectrics, tensor, tensor components.

Аннотация. Аномальный фотовольтаический эффект, наблюдавшийся ранее для сегнетоэлектриков Li bO3:Fe SbSJ, является частным случаем более общего ФЭ существующего в кристаллах без центра симметрии и описываемого тензорам третьего a


.

Ключевые слова: фотовольтаический эффект, сегнетоэлектрики, тензор, компоненты тензора.

The components of the aij tensor are nonzero for 20 acentric point symmetry groups. With uniform illumination by linearly polarized light of a homogeneous piezo crystal and ferroelectrics, a photovoltaic current arises in it. The sign and magnitude of the photovoltaic current depends on the orientation of the polarization vector of light with its components and Ul*, the direction of its propagation and the symmetry of the crystal.

InВ accordance with (I) and the symmetry ofВ the point group, it is possible toВ write an expression for the photovoltaic current. Comparison ofВ the experimental criminal dependence with (ОІ) makes it possible toВ determine the photovoltaic tensor aajk or photovoltaic coefficients








(a* is the light absorption coefficient).

If the electrodes of the crystal are opened, the photovoltaic current generates a photovoltaic voltage of 103-105 B. the value of which can be several orders of magnitude greater than the band gap of piezo or ferroelectrics. There is no FE in centrosymmetric crystals.

We studied a-quartz, one of the more common crystalline forms of silica (SiO2). At tempratures up to 573o, there is a so-called "low-temperature" a-quartz. A-quartz crystals belong to the trigonal trapezohedral class of the trigonal system (point group of symmetry 32) and are often found in two known forms: right and left crystals. At normal pressure and temperature of 573o With a – quartz turns into a hexagonal—trapezohedral class of the hexagonal system (point symmetry group 622).

The third—order axis in quartz is the optical axis of the crystal. One of the axes of the second order is the electric axis and the normal to both of these axes is the mechanical axis.

The symmetry of the quartz structure determines the symmetry of the properties of this crystal.

Quartz has the need to rotate the plane of the field, not only along the optical axis, but also in a direction perpendicular to it. It has been experimentally established that the ratio remains constant for wavelengths from 545 to 565 Nm and is equal to 054, i.e. the rotation of the plane in the directions perpendicular to the optical wasp is immeasurably two times less than that of the optical wasp. Despite all the "popularity" of quartz, both its properties have not yet been studied in detail.

In this paper, the results are presented, the effect of the polarization of light on

Af effect in natural crystal -quartz with natural coloring.

Figure 1 shows the angular instability of the photovoltaic current in a native a-quartz crystal with a natural color. The crystals were suspended in the impurity spectral region (l- 300—500 nm, a2 = 2cm -1) at room temperature. Figure 1 shows two orientational angular dependence Jx (b) when illuminated in the direction of the a-z axis, while for a-quartz K11 = (1—3). 10—13 A. cm (W) -1.













The illumination in the Z—direction reveals a noticeable deviation of Jx(b) from the theory. Perhaps this is due to the difference in the values of the optical activity coefficient of quartz for the Z— and Y—directions. Attention is drawn to the very low value of the photovoltaic coefficient K11 in a-quartz. It characterizes the impurity centers responsible for the natural coloring of natural crystals and does not reflect the asymmetry of their own transitions. Unfortunately, a-quartz impurity centers have not been specifically investigated; this provides an independent task.

The field was measured byВ the compensation method








the corresponding photo voltage V=El generated inВ quartz inВ the x-axis direction. At room temperature, the following values were obtained:








Due toВ the temperature dependence ofВ the conductivity ofВ quartz, the field and the photon voltage M increase with decreasing temperature.




Literature


1.В Ryvkin S. M. Photoelectric phenomena in semiconductors Fizmatgiz.1963,494p

.2. FridkinВ V.В M.В Ferroelectrics-semiconductors. M., Nauka 1976.




ABOUT THE ABILITY TOВ MOVE ROBOTIC DEVICES AND THE USE OFВ NEW IDEOLOGUES-MATHEMATICAL ALGORITHMS INВ THEIR CREATION



UDC 004.896




Karimov Boxodir Xoshimovich







Candidate of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, Associate Professor of the Department of "Technological Education" of the Faculty of Physics and Technology of Fergana State University

Qo’chqorov Ahliddin Mirzohidovich







Lecturer of "Technological Education" of the Faculty of Physics and Technology of Fergana State University







Ferghana State University, Ferghana, Uzbekistan


Annotation. The performance ofВ aВ large number ofВ various types ofВ work and operations today is also reduced toВ the possibility ofВ moving it and making movement. OfВ course, there are other types ofВ robots that perform their functions inВ the same location, however, aВ large number ofВ robots use different ways ofВ movement, which is described inВ this paper.

Keywords: robot, movement, methods ofВ movement, provision ofВ various kinds ofВ services, demonstration, electric energy.

Аннотация. Выполнение большого количества самой различного типа работ и операций в сегодняшний день сводиться также и к возможности его перемещение и совершения движения. Разумеется, существуют прочие типы роботов, исполняющие свои функции и в одном местоположении, однако, большое количество роботов используют именно различные способы передвижения, что описано в настоящей работе.

Ключевые слова: робот, движение, способы передвижения, оказание различного рода услуг, демонстрация, электрическая энергия.

The very concept of "robot" was created quite early, back in 1920, by the Czech writer Karel Chapek and his brother Josef for Mr. Chapek's science fiction play "R. U. R.", which was staged in 1921, after which it enjoyed success and then became popular. The same terms as "robotics" or more precisely "robotics" were more popularized by the famous writer Isaac Asimov in the science fiction story "Liar" of 1941.

To date, there are a huge number of very different robots, however, the problem of performing human-like movement among most of them on two or more limbs remains and therefore wheeled or tracked robots remain the most common among them, while four-wheeled ones are most often used, but of course there are robots that use more of them, or less, in favor of simplifying the design. A striking example of this is two-wheeled robots using gyroscopic systems for their precise retention and maintaining balance, using the dynamics of an inverse pendulum.

A more popular example of such a device is the segway, which, for comparison, was used as a transport platform in the Robonaut robot developed by NASA. It may seem surprising, but there are also unicycle-like robots that hold the alignment, but they are extremely rare. More actively, ballbots are used instead of them, which are already used, as can be seen from the name of the sphere, driven by several electric motor systems with general control of their retention and balance. Another interesting solution may be such a sharobot, the control system and other details, together with the brain system of which is not taken outside the robot body itself, but is located exactly inside it. Robots developed by the Swiss Higher Technical School, Tohoku Gakuin University and others have become popular.

There are, of course, types that use a larger number of wheels or a tracked type of movement, while such robots have the ability to move in a variety of surfaces, most often uneven, which allows the ability to move the wheel restraint systems along various axes. This design is also called "omnidirectional wheels".

When the technology of using wheels and tracks was described, it is also worth describing the way of movement on the limbs, or more precisely, walking robots, publications about which began in the 1970s and 1980s, although mentions of such devices and machines were still in the myths of Ancient Greece, where it was about the servants of the god Hephaestus, which he created and he gave reason, and popularization was already in subsequent science fiction novels by famous writers.

Of course, numerous motor gears operate at the same time, and no matter how surprising it is, such structures are easier to design, besides, they can use more limbs, as mentioned, or use only hands while walking, and hands and feet when running. However, the biggest problem among the creation of such robots is their poor retention and the ability to keep balance, like the human body.

And although research in this area is still ongoing, there are a huge number of different ways to solve these problems. An example of these technologies is the method of using a servo drive and a hydromechanical drive, ZMP technology and others. If walking itself is difficult for robots, using more complex movements for them may seem absurd, but surprisingly, there are only jumping robots that perfectly cope directly with this function. And of course, methods for adaptive algorithms for maintaining equilibrium are more progressive, of which there are not only a huge number, but during real testing, you may have to create completely new, previously non-existent algorithms.

Other, more exotic, but no less interesting methods for moving robots include flying robots, an example of which can be given at least UAVs (unmanned aerial vehicles), crawling robots that already imitate the way snakes, worms, slugs move, there are also robots moving on vertical surfaces, like geckos with a way of holding them on glass surface, or swim freely like fish, jellyfish and other inhabitants of marine flora and fauna.

As you can see, drawing conclusions, humanity, following the path ofВ improving robotic devices, has already been able toВ find opportunities for imitation ofВ such devices toВ aВ variety ofВ living organisms, without excluding the person himself. But do not forget that this is just the beginning and there is even aВ lot toВ be done ahead, for example, toВ better adapt toВ full-fledged walking, find more favorable solutions, and further develop such technology even further, achieving even greater results.




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